New automotive trends in safety, convenience, entertainment and fuel efficiency drive vehicle makers to adapt vehicle designs to meet the needs of consumers
Change is constant in the automotive industry due to global competition for the consumer's business. Safety, fuel economy, comfort and communication are the primary driving forces behind vehicle design. This creates problems for collision repairers because the cars they repair tomorrow are going to be much different than the cars they are repairing today. Steels are higher strength and lighter, various types of metals and plastics are used to create full-frame and unitized structures, passive restraint systems are more complex, and high-tech navigation and communication equipment are becoming standard.
New steels
New types of steels have been introduced to vehicle designs in an effort to increase collision energy management and passenger safety, while maintaining or reducing vehicle weight, which in turn creates better fuel economy.(Figure 1) This means that vehicle makers are going beyond the traditional mild and high-strength steel commonly used for many years. Enter the age of advanced-high-strength steels (AHSS).AHSS is a term used to describe the recent developments in materials used in unibody and full-frame construction. These steels are typically stronger, lighter, and thinner than mild steel and have names such as dual-phase, transformation induced plasticity (TRIP), martensitic, boron-alloyed and others. All vehicle makers have incorporated varying percentages of these advanced high-strength steels into the construction of their late-model vehicles.
Audi, for example, has taken advantage of the new steels. The unibody structure of the Audi Q7 uses four different types of steel. By percentage, the steel usage in the body is 36 percent mild steel, 26 percent high-strength steel, and a combined makeup of 32 percent AHSS.
Chrysler also has begun to increase the amount of AHSS in its vehicles, using steels such as dual-phase and boron-alloyed steel. An example of steel composition for some Chrysler vehicle parts includes boron-alloyed steel in the B-pillars and rocker panels. Boron-alloyed steel also is used for the A-pillar inner reinforcement on vehicles such as the Dodge Caliber, Jeep Compass and the 2008 Sebring.
Other vehicles that use AHSS include the Ford Taurus, which has dual-phase steel in the vehicle structure, including the inner A-pillar reinforcements, outer B-pillar reinforcements, roof rail and outer A-pillar assembly. The GM Lambda platform structure, which includes the Saturn Outlook, Buick Enclave and GMC Arcadia, uses an AHSS called martensitic steel in the rocker panels and floor crossmembers.
AHSS has special requirements regarding repair techniques. Traditional methods of using heat and some cutting operations may not apply. Before beginning repairs, verify repair methods with the vehicle maker's collision repair information.
Laminated steel is designed to provide noise, vibration and harshness (NVH) control, making the passenger cab environment quieter. To achieve this, laminated steel parts have two outer layers of steel with an inner layer of viscoelastic polymer. Chrysler uses laminated steel in the Stow 'N Go seat tubs on the Dodge Caravan and the Chrysler Town & Country, in addition to the inner wheelhouse reinforcements of the Jeep Grand Cherokee.
General Motors (GM) also uses laminated steel for the cowl panel assembly on the Chevrolet HHR; Cadillac DTS, CTS and STS; Buick Lacrosse; and Chevrolet Cobalt. When replacing a front lower rail on laminated steel vehicles, GM has a procedure for rivet-bonding the front lower rails to the laminated steel cowl and plug welding the rear portion of the rail to the floor pan assembly.
Alternative materials
In addition to these different types of steel, there is an increasing use of alternative materials such as aluminum, magnesium and carbon fiber. Each provides a lightweight and strong alternative to steel.
Aluminum
In addition to the earlier models of aluminum-intensive vehicles, such as the Acura NSX and the Audi A8, aluminum is now being used for an increasing number of vehicles. For example, the Aston Martin V8 Vantage is a new, aluminum-intensive vehicle that is assembled using rivets and adhesive. To help control collision energy and increase the structural integrity of the vehicle, the V8 Vantage uses a crash cowl. The crash cowl is a heavy cast aluminum cowl panel that starts at the base of the windshield and extends into the front section of the floor. The function of the crash cowl is to direct the engine downward during frontal collisions.
For 2007, Jaguar introduced the redesigned XK. The XK was previously built as an all-steel vehicle, but was changed to be all-aluminum. The XK is available as either a two-door coupe or convertible.
The Corvette Z06 has an aluminum-intensive vehicle structure built primarily from 6063 series aluminum. When doing repairs to the Corvette Z06, GM offers partial replacement hydroformed aluminum frame rails for the front, middle and rear sections of the vehicle.
In addition to complete aluminum structures, there are a number of vehicles that have multiple parts made from aluminum. For example, the doors of the Audi Q7 have bolt-in aluminum intrusion beams. Volvo has an aluminum beam at the top of the door shell on the C70 convertible for side and front impact protection. Audi also is using aluminum exterior panels for the hood, liftgate, door skins and fenders. Land Rover uses many aluminum parts on the Range Rover for weight reduction. Some of these parts include the front fenders, wheels, hood, inner and outer door structure, body panels and door intrusion beams.
The BMW 5 and 6 Series have an aluminum front structure, with cast strut towers, extruded lower rails and a stamped cowl panel. The vehicle is steel from the A-pillars rearward. The aluminum front structural parts are joined with GMA (MIG) welding and self-piercing rivet bonding. The aluminum front structure is joined to the steel structure with self-piercing rivet bonding.
Magnesium
For the Corvette Z06, SMC still is used for the outer body panels, and the roof bow is made of magnesium. The front seat frames of the Hyundai Azera and the radiator core support on the Ford F-150 are made from cast magnesium.
Carbon fiber
Carbon fiber is a fiber-reinforced composite that is much stronger than fiberglass. This allows the part to be a lot thinner and lighter, yet maintain similar strengths.
The Aston Martin Vanquish is made mostly of carbon fiber, though aluminum is used for the strut towers. The last year that the Vanquish was built was the 2006 calendar year. For 2007, the BMW M6 is built using a carbon fiber roof panel that is attached with windshield urethane. Refer to BMW for replacement considerations. The Corvette Z06 also uses carbon fiber body panels in the front floor pan area and the front fenders to reduce the overall weight of the vehicle.
New attachment methods
Because of these new types of construction materials, we are seeing a variety of new attachment methods (Figure 2). These include MIG brazing, weld bonding, and a variety of mechanical fasteners such as self-piercing rivets, blind rivets and EJOTS. MIG brazing is an adhesion process that makes use of GMA (MIG) welding equipment. Weld bonding uses a combination of spot welds or GMA (MIG) welds with structural adhesive. EJOTS are a special type of rivet used to attach aluminum panels on Jaguar vehicles.Another type of attachment uses a combination of adhesive and rivets, a process known as rivet bonding. Some 2007 model year vehicles that use rivet bonding during new vehicle assembly and repair include the Audi A8, Jaguar XJ and XK, and the Aston Martin Vantage. For part replacement, GM recommends rivet bonding the replacement front lower rail to the laminated steel cowl on the Cadillac DTS, Buick Lucerne and Pontiac Grand Prix.
The aluminum structure of the Jaguar XJ and XK is assembled and repaired using rivet bonding as the primary fastening method. There is some laser welding on the front lower rail of the XK, although welding is not used as the primary attachment method.
Some vehicle makers that use MIG brazing during new vehicle assembly include Audi (which calls it laser soldering), Volkswagen, Toyota and Chrysler. The Toyota Prius and other Toyota vehicles use MIG brazing to attach some body panels during new vehicle assembly, and while doing collision repairs. Some other vehicle makers that use MIG brazing for vehicle repairs include Land Rover, Saab and Volkswagen. The Audi A6 uses brazing during vehicle assembly. This is done for attaching the upper fender rail to the radiator core support. Though brazing is used during new vehicle assembly on the A6, it is not recommended for repair. For repairs in North America, the upper fender rail is attached to the radiator core support with spot welds.
Alternative fuels
With increasing fuel prices and a desire for a cleaner burning alternative to gasoline, many vehicle makers are making vehicles equipped with alternative fuel options. The two most common include hybrid vehicles, which use both electricity and gasoline, and flex-fuel systems, which use E85-type fuel.
Hybrids
GM offered the Yukon/Tahoe, Silverado and Sierra as a two-mode hybrid, or what some car companies call a full hybrid, for a couple of years ending in model year 2007. A two-mode hybrid vehicle is capable of electric motor-only propulsion, propulsion with the electric motor and the gasoline engine, or on the gasoline engine only. Other full hybrids include the 2008 Lexus LS 600h L, 2008 Toyota Camry, 2008 Dodge Durango and the 2008 Ford Fusion.
The Tahoe and Yukon are equipped with a 5.3L V8 engine that is flex-fuel capable. Flex-fuel vehicles are designed to operate on either traditional unleaded gasoline or E85. E85 is an ethanol-based fuel that is 15 percent petroleum and 85 percent ethanol. If a vehicle is designed to operate on E85, it will be listed in the service manual or owner's manuals.
Natural gas
Some vehicle makers are using compressed natural gas (CNG). For example, Honda offers the Civic GX as a CNG vehicle. Honda also offers a home refueling unit, called Phill, which can be installed in the garage of the vehicle owner. When working on a CNG vehicle, ensure that the fuel valve is closed, and if the vehicle is moved into a spraybooth, remove the CNG fuel tank. CNG is more sensitive to elevated temperatures than regular gasoline or diesel fuel. For this reason, when the bake cycle is activated, there is an increased risk of explosion from a CNG fuel tank.
Increased fuel efficiency
Many vehicle makers have redesigned their engines to obtain maximum fuel efficiency at cruising speeds. For example, GM is using a system called cylinder deactivation or active fuel management (AFM) in vehicles equipped with a 5.3L engine, such as the TrailBlazer, Rainier and Envoy. With AFM, the cylinders powering the vehicle can be turned on or off by the powertrain control module depending on specific driving conditions. This allows the engine to operate on all eight cylinders or four cylinders.
With AFM, the engine cylinders are deactivated only while driving at steady speeds with a steady throttle. On GM vehicles, four specific oil passages are used to direct oil pressure to the lifters of cylinders 1, 7, 2 and 4. This oil pressure is used to lock the necessary lifters so the intake and exhaust valves do not open. If the oil passages are plugged, or other engine management parameters are not met, the system will not switch from V8 mode to 4-cylinder mode.
When working on vehicles with this option, verify the system is functioning as designed by the vehicle maker. To verify proper operation, refer to the vehicle repair information or monitor cylinder deactivation with a scan tool.
Infotainment
In this age of on-demand information, vehicle options include a variety of electronics used for navigation, communication and entertainment. These include satellite radio and television, hybrid digital (HD) radio, music, satellite navigation systems, cellular and Internet. Many vehicle makers have found a seamless method of integrating all of these features into vehicle designs that allow easy access by the user. Such features use touch-screen controls for the navigation and information screen along with DVD screens mounted in the instrument panel and in the rear of the front-seat headrests.
Bluetooth wireless technology is an increasingly popular feature. This technology allows personal electronic equipment to automatically sync up with the vehicle once they are brought into the passenger compartment. For example, cell phones and personal MP3 players automatically sync with the vehicle's stereo and personal communications features.
Ford has added an entertainment-management system developed by Microsoft called Ford Sync. This software is Ford's fully integrated, voice-activated in-car communications and entertainment system for mobile phones and digital music players. Users can access their mobile phone or digital music player — including genre, album, artist and song title — via voice commands. This system provides drivers the convenience and flexibility to bring into their vehicle nearly any mobile phone or digital media player and operate it using voice commands or the vehicle's steering wheel or radio controls. Sync is available on the 2008 Ford Focus, Fusion, Taurus, Edge, Taurus X, Explorer and Sport Trac; Mercury Milan, Sable and Mountaineer; and Lincoln MKX and MKZ.
Part of the driver and passenger conveniences on the Land Rover Range Rover include touch-screen controls for the navigation and information screen along with DVD screens mounted in the instrument panel and in the rear of the front-seat headrests. Though the Range Rover is equipped with a DVD player, the system is designed to turn off the instrument panel display screen when the vehicle speed exceeds 5 km/h (3 mph).
Convenience
Convenience packages provide items that increase driver comfort, reduce driver fatigue and complete simple tasks. Examples include automatic locks, power windows and hatch opening, keyless entry, automatic seat adjustments and adaptive cruise control.
The Jaguar XK has passenger conveniences such as a speed-limiting switch, keyless start system, keyless entry, three separate memory settings for each front seat passenger and shift paddles on the steering wheel.
The speed-limiting switch, which keeps the vehicle from exceeding a specific speed, is set by the driver at a specific (maximum) speed. This setting keeps the vehicle from being accelerated above that set speed. When the vehicle is turned off, the speed-limiting switch is disengaged until it is re-engaged by the driver. The XK also has adaptive cruise control, which helps maintain safe following distances to vehicles ahead.
For convenience, there are shift paddles on the backside of the steering wheel. This option enables the driver to keep both hands on the steering wheel while driving and shifting the automatic transmission when it is set to the manual mode.
Other convenience items include movable foot pedals that are available in the Dodge Caliber. This option is designed to offer the driver a safe driving position and comfort. The 2006 Lincoln Navigator contains options that include a power liftgate, folding and heated side mirrors, and running boards. By pressing a single button inside the vehicle or on the key fob, the Navigator's power liftgate closes under its own power.
Also, from controls inside the vehicle, the side mirrors can fold in against the front doors and the side mirror heaters can be turned on. For assist in vehicle entry, running boards are lowered when the vehicle doors are opened, and retract when the doors are closed.
Keyless vehicle systems
Keyless entry systems have advanced beyond simply locking and unlocking doors and opening the trunk. For example, the keyless entry on the Jaguar XK allows the doors to automatically unlock when the vehicle key fob is detected within three feet of one of the keyless entry antennas, which are located in each door handle and in the rear bumper near the tailgate.
Along with keyless entry, the Jaguar XK is equipped with keyless start. When the vehicle key fob is detected inside the vehicle, the vehicle can be started by pressing a START button on the instrument panel. If the key fob battery is dead, the key fob is placed in the start control unit and the vehicle electronics energizes the key fob. The keyless vehicle module identifies that the key fob is physically in the vehicle, and the vehicle is allowed to start.
Other keyless entry systems include heartbeat indicator (Volvo), door lock indicator, air conditioning and heat activation, and fuel level monitor.
Adaptive cruise control
Adaptive cruise control (ACC) is used for maintaining a set and safe following distance from another vehicle (Figure 3). It alters the speed of the vehicle to maintain a set distance and may even apply the brakes in specific situations to maintain that distance.Mercedes-Benz offers a product called Distronic Plus, which is an ACC system. To determine following distances, Distronic Plus uses radar mounted to the radiator core support and projects a beam forward to measure the distance of the vehicle ahead up to 150 meters (164 yards). If the vehicle ahead decreases speed, Distronic Plus reduces speed to maintain the set following distance. If the vehicle ahead increases speed, Distronic Plus reacts like a conventional cruise control and maintains the set following distance and speed.
What is unique about this system is that it uses two separate radar frequencies, 77 GHz and 24 GHz. The 77 GHz frequency is used to monitor activity at distances up to 150 meters (164 yards) away, and the 24 GHz frequency is used to monitor activity closer to the vehicle, out to 30 meters (33 yards). The 24 GHz frequency operates with a brake-assist feature. Mercedes-Benz is the only company that uses two different radar frequencies. Other systems use one radar frequency or a laser beam.
The brake-assist feature, or Brake Assist Plus (BAP) system, assists a driver during aggressive stopping situations by applying additional hydraulic brake pressure to shorten the stopping distance of the vehicle. BAP is not a new technology, but combining BAP with the ACC radar-monitoring function is. Following distance and closing speed information from the Distronic Plus 24 GHz radar are used to calculate how much brake assist is required to stop the vehicle.
Different than other ACC systems, Distronic Plus can bring the vehicle to a complete stop and then resume acceleration. Distronic Plus is designed to operate at speeds from 0-200 km/h (0-123 mph).
ACC is not unique to Mercedes-Benz. Many other vehicle makers offer a similar version of this feature including GM, Toyota, Volkswagen and Volvo. However, different names may be used, such as Active Cruise Control (BMW), Dynamic Radar Cruise Control (Lexus, Toyota), or Intelligent Cruise Control (Infiniti).
Speed-limiting switch
The speed-limiting switch, such as on the Jaguar XK, keeps the vehicle from exceeding a specific speed. It is set by the driver at a specific maximum speed. This setting keeps the vehicle from being accelerated above the set speed. When the vehicle is turned off, the speed-limiting switch is disengaged until it is re-engaged by the driver.
Parking assist
Parking assist is a convenience system designed to help a driver parallel park in tight situations (Figure 4). This feature uses sensors on the bumper to sound an audible warning as bumpers get close to an object. The sounds are either amplified through the radio speakers or dedicated rear speakers.The 2006 Jaguar provides both an audible beep and an image on the navigation display screen for the rear of the vehicle. For example, when backing the XK, the vehicle is equipped with a visual indicator for the rear parking-assist system along with an audio alert. The visual display shows an overhead view of the car and indicates with visual zones, along with an audible tone, the proximity of an object behind the vehicle.
Parking-assist sensors are susceptible to damage from impacts to the bumper area of the vehicle. If a sensor is damaged and not providing a signal, replacement may be the only option.
Lexus has a feature called the Advanced Parking Guidance System. This feature, which uses information from the Intuitive Park Assist system, takes over when a driver is parallel parking or backing the vehicle into a parking space. The driver only needs to confirm the desired parking space and apply the brakes when required.
Night vision
Night vision, though not a new technology, is used to help detect objects, living or inanimate, while driving at night. The 2007 Lexus LX470 SUV is equipped with a night vision system that uses a light mounted in the front bumper. The light projects a near-infrared light and the return signal is received by a camera mounted near the rearview mirror. The signal information is processed by a dedicated computer and projected onto the windshield through the heads-up display (HUD).
Some infrared-based night vision systems detect objects that give off heat. When an infrared-based system detects these objects, the visual image is commonly "ghost-like" and their surrounds are not visible. The system used by Lexus provides a relatively clear image, out to about 152 meters (500 feet), which exceeds the present capabilities of low-beam headlamps.
Night View Assist, available on the Mercedes S-Class, uses two sensors. One sensor detects objects warmer than the ambient temperature, and the other sensor detects objects cooler than the ambient temperature. When Night View Assist is activated, objects are displayed on the LCD instrument panel screen where the speedometer would be displayed.
Side assist
Side object detection systems are designed to alert the driver of vehicles in adjacent lane blind spots. Depending on the equipment maker, these systems may use either radar sensors or digital cameras for side object detection. On the 2007 Volvo S80, the Blind Spot Information System (BLIS) uses cameras located near the outside mirrors to detect vehicles in a blind spot and alerts the driver (Figure 5).The side-assist system on a 2007 Audi Q7 is designed to monitor the area to the side and rear of the vehicle, and to assist in making safe lane changes. Two 24-GHz radar sensors in the rear bumper monitor the area next to and behind the vehicle to alert the driver of any approaching vehicles. The side-assist sensors have a range of up to 5 meters (16.5 feet). The system is active from a speed of 56 km/h (35 mph) and can also be switched off. The Audi side-assist system does not intervene in the driving and control of the vehicle.
Lighting
Technology originally available only on the BMW 7 Series, Adaptive Brake Lights (ABL), are now available across the BMW product line. ABL technology turns on additional rear brake lights depending on the braking or deceleration rate of the vehicle. The more aggressively the driver stops the vehicle, the more brake lights are turned on.
This technology operates by a control unit processing information received from the speedometer and the anti-lock brake system (ABS). The information is used to determine the rate of vehicle deceleration, and then to turn on the appropriate brake lights.
With technology that operates by data from other systems, knowing how the system is designed to operate and verifying that other systems are functioning properly is critical. With the ABS acting as an input, a problem with the system could cause the adaptive brake light circuit to function like normal brake lights.
As an enhancement to night vision, BMW uses high-intensity discharge headlamps to illuminate the road up to 155 meters (170 yards) ahead of the vehicle. BMW has another vision aid called High-Beam Assistant (HBA). HBA automatically adjusts the headlamps for the best range and brightness depending on the driving situation by processing input data from a light-sensing camera near the rearview mirror. This sensor monitors the road out to 1,006 meters (1,100 yards) in front of the car and automatically changes between high and low beam when oncoming (headlamp or tail lamp) light sources are detected.
Both high-intensity discharge headlamps and HBA use electronic motors to adjust the light output of the headlamps by opening and closing a shutter inside the forward-projection lamp assembly. When doing damage analysis or a post-vehicle inspection, verify the front lighting system can switch from high to low beam by referring to the specific vehicle maker's repair and testing information.
Movable headlamps
To help nighttime vision around curves, some vehicles are equipped with movable headlamps that light the area around the curve. Movable headlamps on the Lexus have only one headlamp that turns while the other remains stationary. But on the SC430, depending on vehicle speed and turning angle, the headlamps will move up to 15 degrees to the left and 5 degrees to the right. In addition, the Adaptive Front Lighting system (AFS) offered on the SC430 is designed to auto-level.
For increased visibility during night driving, the Infiniti Q45, FX, QX, G35, and M45 are equipped with adjustable headlamps. From inside the vehicle, the headlamps can be adjusted vertically to one of four different positions to accommodate different diving conditions. From the vertical up-most position to the vertical down-most position, the headlamps can move 1.93 degrees. Because the front of the vehicle is most susceptible to collision damage, ensure that each headlamp has free vertical movement as designed by Infiniti following repairs to the headlamp area of the vehicle.
For 2006-'07, the Cadillac XLR is equipped with Adaptive Forward Lighting (AFL), which provides lighting in the direction the vehicle is steered. Similar to the Lexus SC430, if the vehicle is turned to the left, the left headlamp moves up to 15 degrees to the left while the right headlamp only moves up to 5 degrees to the left. If the vehicle is steered to the right, the headlamps operate in reverse order.
Braking
Continual advances in braking system technology are reducing wheel lockup while braking, in addition to providing support for collision avoidance systems.
The 2006-'07 Acura RL is equipped with new features designed to help avoid potential collision situations, and to reduce the severity of unavoidable collisions. This system is called Collision Mitigation Brake System (CMBS) and works with the Adaptive Cruise Control system. CMBS operates in multiple stages. At the first stage, if the system determines that the closing rate of the Acura RL and the vehicle ahead has exceeded an acceptable level, the system will attempt to alert the driver through audible, visual and physical (tactile) warnings that the current conditions could result in a collision. In the second stage, the CMBS lightly applies the brakes to reduce the speed of the vehicle. Lastly, if an unavoidable collision is identified, the CMBS aggressively retracts the driver and front passenger seat belts and applies the brakes to reduce the speed of the vehicle at the time of impact to lessen vehicle damage and bodily injury.
Safety systems
The technology associated with occupant protection is constantly being advanced to create a safer collision environment. This includes making sure occupants are properly secured inside the vehicle during a collision and ensuring that all passive restraint systems are working in concert.
As a safety feature, the 2007 Lexus GS is equipped with Pre-Collision. Pre-Collision is a safety system similar in function to the Mercedes-Benz Pre-Safe system. Both systems use a variety of inputs such as vehicle speed, deceleration rate, and with systems that offer adaptive cruise control, closing distance to another vehicle. When this information is processed, the Pre-Collision system will tighten the seat belts, load the brakes, and prepare for a collision.
The Hyundai Azera also is equipped with mechanical, pendulum-style head restraints that move forward about 25 mm (1 inch) when the appropriate rearward force is applied to the seatback. These rearward forces are typically achieved during rear-end collisions. An active or mechanical headrest is designed to reduce the rearward distance and impact force of a person's head against the headrest during a rear-end collision.
The Honda Fit uses a dual-stage airbag system that also uses front passenger-seat weight sensors and a driver seat-position sensor. These sensors increase occupant protection for the driver and front passenger by reducing the chance of airbag-induced injury from incorrect airbag deployment severity.
The front airbags of the Fit can be deployed at one of two rates. Deployment of the driver front airbag is dependent upon the severity of the crash and the position of the driver seat. During a lower-speed collision, the airbag inflators ignite in sequence, providing an airbag deployment with reduced force. The same sequence is used regardless of collision speed if the driver seat is near the full-forward position. During increased speed collisions, and if the driver seat is far from the full forward position, both inflators ignite simultaneously for quicker inflation.
In 2004, Buick replaced the Century with the LaCrosse. When the new model was built, it was equipped with dual-depth airbags. Dual-depth airbags are essentially a dual-stage airbag, though they function a bit differently. A dual-depth airbag has a tether connected between the passenger airbag inflator and the inner part of the airbag face. The tether is designed to limit the outward deployment depth of the passenger airbag when full volume deployment is not required.
When full volume deployment is required, the tether is released and the airbag fully deploys. The 2007 model year Buick Lucerne and Cadillac DTS both use dual-depth airbags.
Conclusion
With efforts to meet the requirements of vehicle owners that focus on safety, convenience, entertainment and fuel efficiency, vehicle makers are constantly adapting vehicle designs to meet the needs of the consumer. Keeping up with these changes is key to ensure safe and durable repairs.
I-CAR has several programs that expand on each of these topics. They can be found in the I-CAR online training catalog. I-CAR also has released two new live training programs that address the new technologies. These programs include Steel Unitized Structure Technologies and Repair (SPS07) and Steel Full-Frame Technologies And Repair (SPS08). Consider attending this program to obtain the latest information on repairing late model unitized and full frame structures.
